Kidney replacement therapy: trends in incidence, treatment, and outcomes of myocardial infarction and stroke in a nationwide Scottish study.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Patients with kidney failure have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease compared with the general population. Whilst temporal trends of myocardial infarction and stroke are declining in the general population, these have not been evaluated in patients with kidney failure. This study aimed to describe national trends in the incidence, treatment, and outcomes of myocardial infarction and stroke in patients with kidney failure (i.e. on dialysis or with a kidney transplant) over a 20-year period, stratified by age and sex. METHODS: In this retrospective national data linkage study, all patients with kidney failure in Scotland (UK) receiving kidney replacement therapy between January 1996 and December 2016 were linked to national hospitalization, prescribing, and death records. The primary outcomes were the incidence of myocardial infarction and stroke, and subsequent cardiovascular death. Generalized additive models were constructed to estimate age-standardized, sex-stratified incidence rates and trends in cardiovascular and all-cause death. RESULTS: Amongst 16 050 patients with kidney failure [52 (SD 15) years; 41.5% women], there were 1992 [66 (SD 12) years; 34.8% women] and 996 [65 (SD 13) years; 45.1% women] incident myocardial infarctions and strokes, respectively, between January 1996 and December 2016. During this period, the age-standardized incidence of myocardial infarction per 100 000 decreased in men {from 4376 [95% confidence interval (CI) 3998-4785] to 1835 (95% CI 1692-1988)} and women [from 3268 (95% CI 2982-3593) to 1369 (95% CI 1257-1491)]. Similarly, the age-standardized incidence of stroke per 100 000 also decreased in men [from 1978 (95% CI 1795-2175) to 799 (95% CI 729-875)] and women [from 2234 (95% CI 2031-2468) to 903 (95% CI 824-990)]. Compared with the general population, the incidence of myocardial infarction was four- to eight-fold higher in patients with kidney failure, whilst for stroke it was two- to four-fold higher. The use of evidence-based cardioprotective treatment increased over the study period, and the predicted probability of cardiovascular death within 1 year of myocardial infarction for a 66-year-old patient with kidney failure (mean age of the cohort) fell in men (76.6% to 38.6%) and women (76.8% to 38.8%), and also decreased in both sexes following stroke (men, from 63.5% to 41.4%; women, from 67.6% to 45.8%). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of myocardial infarction and stroke has halved in patients with kidney failure over the past 20 years but remains significantly higher than in the general population. Despite improvements in treatment and outcomes, the prognosis of these patients following myocardial infarction and stroke remains poor.

Choroidal and retinal thinning in chronic kidney disease independently associate with eGFR decline and are modifiable with treatment.

In patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), there is an unmet need for novel biomarkers that reliably track kidney injury, demonstrate treatment-response, and predict outcomes. Here, we investigate the potential of retinal optical coherence tomography (OCT) to achieve these ends in a series of prospective studies of patients with pre-dialysis CKD (including those with a kidney transplant), patients with kidney failure undergoing kidney transplantation, living kidney donors, and healthy volunteers. Compared to health, we observe similar retinal thinning and reduced macular volume in patients with CKD and in those with a kidney transplant. However, the choroidal thinning observed in CKD is not seen in patients with a kidney transplant whose choroids resemble those of healthy volunteers. In CKD, the degree of choroidal thinning relates to falling eGFR and extent of kidney scarring. Following kidney transplantation, choroidal thickness increases rapidly (~10%) and is maintained over 1-year, whereas gradual choroidal thinning is seen during the 12 months following kidney donation. In patients with CKD, retinal and choroidal thickness independently associate with eGFR decline over 2 years. These observations highlight the potential for retinal OCT to act as a non-invasive monitoring and prognostic biomarker of kidney injury.

Endothelin blockade prevents the long-term cardiovascular and renal sequelae of acute kidney injury in mice.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is common and associated with increased risks of cardiovascular and chronic kidney disease. Causative molecular/physiological pathways are poorly defined. There are no therapies to improve long-term outcomes. An activated endothelin system promotes cardiovascular and kidney disease progression. We hypothesized a causal role for this in the transition of AKI to chronic disease. Plasma endothelin-1 was threefold higher; urine endothelin-1 was twofold higher; and kidney preproendothelin-1, endothelin-A, and endothelin-B receptor message up-regulated in patients with AKI. To show causality, AKI was induced in mice by prolonged ischemia with a 4-week follow-up. Ischemic injury resulted in hypertension, endothelium-dependent and endothelium-independent macrovascular and microvascular dysfunction, and an increase in circulating inflammatory Ly6Chigh monocytes. In the kidney, we observed fibrosis, microvascular rarefaction, and inflammation. Administration of endothelin-A antagonist, but not dual endothelin-A/B antagonist, normalized blood pressure, improved macrovascular and microvascular function, and prevented the transition of AKI to CKD. Endothelin-A blockade reduced circulating and renal proinflammatory Ly6Chigh monocytes and B cells, and promoted recruitment of anti-inflammatory Ly6Clow monocytes to the kidney. Blood pressure reduction alone provided no benefits; blood pressure reduction alongside blockade of the endothelin system was as effective as endothelin-A antagonism in mitigating the long-term sequelae of AKI in mice. Our studies suggest up-regulation of the endothelin system in patients with AKI and show in mice that existing drugs that block the endothelin system, particularly those coupling vascular support and anti-inflammatory action, can prevent the transition of AKI to chronic kidney and cardiovascular disease.

Apelin is expressed throughout the human kidney, is elevated in chronic kidney disease & associates independently with decline in kidney function.

AIMS: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is common and cardiovascular disease (CVD) is its commonest complication. The apelin system is a potential therapeutic target for CVD but data relating to apelin in CKD are limited. We examined expression of the apelin system in human kidney, and investigated apelin and Elabela/Toddler (ELA), the endogenous ligands for the apelin receptor, in patients with CKD. METHODS: Using autoradiography, immunohistochemistry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we assessed expression of apelin, ELA and the apelin receptor in healthy human kidney, and measured plasma apelin and ELA in 155 subjects (128 patients with CKD, 27 matched controls) followed up for 5 years. Cardiovascular assessments included blood pressure, arterial stiffness (pulse wave velocity) and brachial artery flow-mediated dilation. Surrogate markers of endothelial function (plasma asymmetric dimethylarginine and endothelin-1) and inflammation (C-reactive protein and interleukin-6) were measured. RESULTS: The apelin system was expressed in healthy human kidney, throughout the nephron. Plasma apelin concentrations were 60% higher in women than men (6.48 [3.62-9.89] vs. 3.95 [2.02-5.85] pg/mL; P < .0001), and increased as glomerular filtration rate declined (R = -0.41, P < .0001), and albuminuria rose (R = 0.52, P < .0001). Plasma apelin and ELA were associated with vascular dysfunction. Plasma apelin associated independently with a 50% decline in glomerular filtration rate at 5 years. CONCLUSION: We show for the first time that the apelin system is expressed in healthy human kidney. Plasma apelin is elevated in CKD and may be a potential biomarker of risk of decline in kidney function. Clinical studies exploring the therapeutic potential of apelin agonism in CKD are warranted.

Cardiovascular outcomes in patients with chronic kidney disease and COVID-19: a multi-regional data-linkage study.

BACKGROUND: Data describing cardiovascular outcomes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) are lacking. We compared cardiovascular outcomes of patients with and without COVID-19, stratified by CKD status. METHODS: This retrospective, multi-regional data-linkage study utilised individual patient-level data from two Scottish cohorts. All patients tested for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Cohort 1 between 1 February 2020 and 31 March 2021 and in Cohort 2 between 28 February 2020 and 8 February 2021 were included. RESULTS: Overall, 86 964 patients were tested for SARS-CoV-2. There were 36 904 patients (mean±sd age 61±21 years; 58.1% women; 15.9% CKD; 10.1% COVID-19 positive) in Cohort 1 and 50 060 patients (mean±sd age 63±20 years; 62.0% women; 16.4% CKD; 9.1% COVID-19 positive) in Cohort 2. In CKD patients, COVID-19 increased the risk of cardiovascular death by more than two-fold within 30 days (cause-specific hazard ratio (csHR) meta-estimate 2.34, 95% CI 1.83-2.99) and by 57% at the end of study follow-up (csHR meta-estimate 1.57, 95% CI 1.31-1.89). Similarly, the risk of all-cause death in COVID-19 positive versus negative CKD patients was greatest within 30 days (HR 4.53, 95% CI 3.97-5.16). Compared with patients without CKD, those with CKD had a higher risk of testing positive (11.5% versus 9.3%). Following a positive test, CKD patients had higher rates of cardiovascular death (11.1% versus 2.7%), cardiovascular complications and cardiovascular hospitalisations (7.1% versus 3.3%) than those without CKD. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 increases the risk of cardiovascular and all-cause death in CKD patients, especially in the short-term. CKD patients with COVID-19 are also at a disproportionate risk of cardiovascular complications than those without CKD.

High-sensitivity cardiac troponin and the diagnosis of myocardial infarction in patients with kidney impairment.

The benefit and utility of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) in the diagnosis of myocardial infarction in patients with kidney impairment is unclear. Here, we describe implementation of hs-cTnI testing on the diagnosis, management, and outcomes of myocardial infarction in patients with and without kidney impairment. Consecutive patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome enrolled in a stepped-wedge, cluster-randomized controlled trial were included in this pre-specified secondary analysis. Kidney impairment was defined as an eGFR under 60mL/min/1.73m2. The index diagnosis and primary outcome of type 1 and type 4b myocardial infarction or cardiovascular death at one year were compared in patients with and without kidney impairment following implementation of hs-cTnI assay with 99th centile sex-specific diagnostic thresholds. Serum creatinine concentrations were available in 46,927 patients (mean age 61 years; 47% women), of whom 9,080 (19%) had kidney impairment. hs-cTnIs were over 99th centile in 46% and 16% of patients with and without kidney impairment. Implementation increased the diagnosis of type 1 infarction from 12.4% to 17.8%, and from 7.5% to 9.4% in patients with and without kidney impairment (both significant). Patients with kidney impairment and type 1 myocardial infarction were less likely to undergo coronary revascularization (26% versus 53%) or receive dual anti-platelets (40% versus 68%) than those without kidney impairment, and this did not change post-implementation. In patients with hs-cTnI above the 99th centile, the primary outcome occurred twice as often in those with kidney impairment compared to those without (24% versus 12%, hazard ratio 1.53, 95% confidence interval 1.31 to 1.78). Thus, hs-cTnI testing increased the identification of myocardial injury and infarction but failed to address disparities in management and outcomes between those with and without kidney impairment.

Infective Endocarditis Hospitalizations and Outcomes in Patients With End-Stage Kidney Disease: A Nationwide Data-Linkage Study.

Background We investigated the clinical features, microbiology, and short- and long-term outcomes of incident infective endocarditis (IE) hospitalizations in patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) requiring dialysis or with a kidney transplant over 25 years in Scotland. Methods and Results In this retrospective, population-based cohort study linking national hospitalization and mortality data, we identified patients with a history of ESKD and hospitalized with IE in Scotland between January 1, 1990 and December 31, 2014. From January 1, 2008, individual IE hospitalizations were additionally linked to national microbiology data. Multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for patient demographics and comorbidities, evaluated the association between ESKD and all-cause death at 1 and 3 years. Of 7638 incident IE hospitalizations between 1990 and 2014, 2.8% (216/7638) occurred in 210 patients with ESKD and 97.2% (7422/7638) occurred in 7303 patients without ESKD. Positive findings from blood cultures were identified in 42% (950/2267) of incident IE hospitalizations from 2008. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated in 25.9% (21/81) and 12.8% (280/2186) of patients with and without ESKD, respectively (P=0.002). ESKD was associated with an increased odds of death at 1 (44.9% versus 31.4%; adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.47, 95% CI, 1.85-3.30;, P<0.001) and 3 years (63.9% versus 42.8%; aOR, 3.77; 95% CI, 2.79-5.12; P<0.001). Conclusions IE is associated with a poor prognosis in patients with ESKD, especially in the longer term. Compared with patients without ESKD, patients with ESKD were twice as likely to die within 1 year, and 3 times as likely to die within 3 years of IE hospitalization.

A National Registry Study of Patient and Renal Survival in Adult Nephrotic Syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: We aimed to determine the mortality rate, cause of death, and rate of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in adults with nephrotic syndrome (NS). METHODS: We conducted a national registry-based study, including all 522 adults who had a kidney biopsy for NS in Scotland in 2014-2017. We linked the Scottish Renal Registry to death certificate data. We performed survival and Cox proportional hazards analyses, accounting for competing risks of death and ESKD. We compared mortality rates with those in the age- and sex-matched general population. RESULTS: A total of 372 patients had primary NS; 150 had secondary NS. Over a median follow-up of 866 days, 110 patients (21%) died. In patients with primary NS, observed versus population 3-year mortality was 2.1% (95% CI 0.0%-4.6%) versus 0.9% (0.8%-1.0%) in patients aged <60 years and 24.9% (18.4%-30.8%) versus 9.4% (8.3%-10.5%) in those aged ≥60 years. In secondary NS, this discrepancy was 17.1% (5.6%-27.2%) versus 1.1% (0.9%-1.2%) in <60-year-olds and 49.4% (36.6%-59.7%) versus 8.1% (6.6%-9.6%) in ≥60-year-olds. In primary NS, cardiovascular causes accounted for 28% of deaths, compared with 18% in the general population. Eighty patients (15%) progressed to ESKD. Incidence of ESKD by 3 years was 8.4% (95% CI 4.9%-11.7%) in primary and 35.1% (24.3%-44.5%) in secondary NS. Early remission of proteinuria and the absence of early acute kidney injury (AKI) were associated with lower rates of death and ESKD. CONCLUSIONS: Adults with NS have high rates of death and ESKD. Cardiovascular causes account for excess mortality in primary NS.

Multimorbidity in Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody-Associated Vasculitis: Results From a Longitudinal, Multicenter Data Linkage Study.

OBJECTIVE: Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis (AAV) is considered a chronic, relapsing condition. To date, no studies have investigated multimorbidity in AAV nationally. This study was undertaken to characterize temporal trends in multimorbidity and report excess health care expenditures associated with multimorbidities in a national AAV cohort from Scotland. METHODS: Eligible patients with AAV were diagnosed between 1997 and 2017. Each patient was matched with up to 5 general population controls. Linked morbidity and health care expenditure data were retrieved from a Scottish national hospitalization repository and from published national cost data. Multimorbidity was defined as the development of ≥2 disorders. Prespecified morbidities, individually and together, were analyzed for risks and associations over time using modified Poisson regression, discrete interval analysis, and chi-square test for trend. The relationship between multimorbidities and health care expenditure was investigated using multivariate linear regression. RESULTS: In total, 543 patients with AAV (median age 58.7 years [range 48.9-68.0 years]; 53.6% male) and 2,672 general population controls (median age 58.7 years [range 48.9-68.0 years]; 53.7% male) were matched and followed up for a median of 5.1 years. AAV patients were more likely to develop individual morbidities at all time points, but especially <2 years after diagnosis. The highest proportional risk observed was for osteoporosis (adjusted incidence rate ratio 8.0, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 4.5-14.2). After 1 year, 23.0% of AAV patients and 9.3% of controls had developed multimorbidity (P < 0.0001). After 10 years, 37.0% of AAV patients and 17.3% of controls were reported to have multimorbidity (P < 0.0001). Multimorbidity was associated with disproportionate increases in health care expenditures in AAV patients. Health care expenditure was highest for AAV patients with ≥3 morbidities (3.89-fold increase in costs, 95% CI 2.83-5.31; P < 0.001 versus no morbidities). CONCLUSION: These findings emphasize the importance of holistic care in patients with AAV, and may identify a potentially critical opportunity to consider early screening.

Correction to: Management of Hypertension in Chronic Kidney Disease.

This article was originally published under a CC By-NC 4.0 license, but has now been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.

Long-term outcomes in elderly patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis.

OBJECTIVE: ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a small vessel vasculitis that commonly presents in the elderly. However, there are few long-term outcome data for these patients. Here, we assessed long-term outcomes in a single-centre cohort of elderly patients with AAV. Additionally, we tested whether a pre-morbid frailty score could aid prognosis. METHODS: Using a prospectively-compiled dataset, we investigated patients over the age of 65 who presented with AAV between 2005 and 2017 to a regional vasculitis centre. We used a Cox model to determine the factors associated with mortality. We also compared outcomes in pre-specified subgroups stratified by baseline frailty score, ANCA serotype and induction immunosuppression (with cyclophosphamide, rituximab or mycophenolate mofetil used as the main glucocorticoid-sparing agent). RESULTS: 83 patients were included in the study and were followed for a median of 1203 days. Median age was 74 years (range 65-92). Two- and five-year survival in the overall cohort were 83% (95% CI 75, 92%) and 75% (95% CI 65, 86%), respectively. The median cumulative dose of oral prednisolone was 2030 mg during the first three months. Only one patient received intravenous glucocorticoids. Age, frailty score and CRP at presentation were independently associated with mortality; all deaths occurred in patients aged over 75 at presentation. Patients treated with a cyclophosphamide-based induction regimen tended to be younger than those treated with rituximab or mycophenolate mofetil. Survival was better in the cyclophosphamide-treated group. CONCLUSION: In the contemporary era, the overall prognosis of AAV in elderly patients is good. Baseline frailty associates with disease outcomes including mortality. A low-dose glucocorticoid regimen (avoiding intravenous methylprednisolone) can be used to treat AAV effectively in elderly patients.

Endothelin Receptor Antagonism Improves Lipid Profiles and Lowers PCSK9 (Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9) in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease.

Dyslipidemia is common in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Despite statins, many patients fail to adequately lower lipids and remain at increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Selective ETA (endothelin-A) receptor antagonists reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors. Preclinical data suggest that ETA antagonism has beneficial effects on circulating lipids. We assessed the effects of selective ETA antagonism on circulating lipids and PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9) in CKD. This was a secondary analysis of a fully randomized, double-blind, 3-phase crossover study. Twenty-seven subjects with predialysis CKD on optimal cardio- and renoprotective treatment were randomly assigned to receive 6 weeks dosing with placebo, the selective ETA receptor antagonist, sitaxentan, or long-acting nifedipine. We measured circulating lipids and PCSK9 at baseline and then after 3 and 6 weeks. Baseline lipids and PCSK9 did not differ before each study phase. Whereas placebo and nifedipine had no effect on lipids, 6 weeks of ETA antagonism significantly reduced total (-11±1%) and low-density lipoprotein-associated (-20±3%) cholesterol, lipoprotein (a) (-16±2%) and triglycerides (-20±4%); high-density lipoprotein-associated cholesterol increased (+14±2%), P<0.05 versus baseline for all. Additionally, ETA receptor antagonism, but neither placebo nor nifedipine, reduced circulating PCSK9 (-19±2%; P<0.001 versus baseline; P<0.05 versus nifedipine and placebo). These effects were independent of statin use and changes in blood pressure or proteinuria. Selective ETA antagonism improves lipid profiles in optimally-managed patients with CKD, effects that may occur through a reduction in circulating PCSK9. ETA receptor antagonism offers a potentially novel strategy to reduce cardiovascular disease risk in CKD. Clinical Trial Registration- URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov . Unique identifier: NCT00810732.

Management of Hypertension in Chronic Kidney Disease.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an increasingly prevalent condition globally and is strongly associated with incident cardiovascular disease (CVD). Hypertension is both a cause and effect of CKD and affects the vast majority of CKD patients. Control of hypertension is important in those with CKD as it leads to slowing of disease progression as well as reduced CVD risk. Existing guidelines do not offer a consensus on optimal blood pressure (BP) targets. Therefore, an understanding of the evidence used to create these guidelines is vital when considering how best to manage individual patients. Non-pharmacological interventions are useful in reducing BP in CKD but are rarely sufficient to control BP adequately. Patients with CKD and hypertension will often require a combination of antihypertensive medications to achieve target BP. Certain pharmacological therapies provide additional BP-independent renoprotective and/or cardioprotective action and this must be considered when instituting therapy. Managing hypertension in the context of haemodialysis and following kidney transplantation presents further challenges. Novel therapies may enhance treatment in the near future. Importantly, a personalised and evidence-based management plan remains key to achieving BP targets, reducing CVD risk and slowing progression of CKD.

First-in-Man Demonstration of Direct Endothelin-Mediated Natriuresis and Diuresis.

Endothelin (ET) receptor antagonists are potentially novel therapeutic agents in chronic kidney disease and resistant hypertension, but their use is complicated by sodium and water retention. In animal studies, this side effect arises from ETB receptor blockade in the renal tubule. Previous attempts to determine whether this mechanism operates in humans have been confounded by the hemodynamic consequences of ET receptor stimulation/blockade. We aimed to determine the effects of ET signaling on salt transport in the human nephron by administering subpressor doses of the ET-1 precursor, big ET-1. We conducted a 2-phase randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study in 10 healthy volunteers. After sodium restriction, subjects received either intravenous placebo or big ET-1, in escalating dose (≤300 pmol/min). This increased plasma concentration and urinary excretion of ET-1. Big ET-1 reduced heart rate (≈8 beats/min) but did not otherwise affect systemic hemodynamics or glomerular filtration rate. Big ET-1 increased the fractional excretion of sodium (from 0.5 to 1.0%). It also increased free water clearance and tended to increase the abundance of the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter (NKCC2) in urinary extracellular vesicles. Our protocol induced modest increases in circulating and urinary ET-1. Sodium and water excretion increased in the absence of significant hemodynamic perturbation, supporting a direct action of ET-1 on the renal tubule. Our data also suggest that sodium reabsorption is stimulated by ET-1 in the thick ascending limb and suppressed in the distal renal tubule. Fluid retention associated with ET receptor antagonist therapy may be circumvented by coprescribing potassium-sparing diuretics.

Chorioretinal thinning in chronic kidney disease links to inflammation and endothelial dysfunction.

BACKGROUND. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is strongly associated with cardiovascular disease and there is an established association between vasculopathy affecting the kidney and eye. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a novel, rapid method for high-definition imaging of the retina and choroid. Its use in patients at high cardiovascular disease risk remains unexplored. METHODS. We used the new SPECTRALIS OCT machine to examine retinal and retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness, macular volume, and choroidal thickness in a prospective cross-sectional study in 150 subjects: 50 patients with hypertension (defined as a documented clinic BP greater than or equal to 140/90 mmHg (prior to starting any treatment) with no underlying cause identified); 50 with CKD (estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) 8-125 ml/min/1.73 m2); and 50 matched healthy controls. We excluded those with diabetes. The same, masked ophthalmologist carried out each study. Plasma IL-6, TNF-α , asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), and endothelin-1 (ET-1), as measures of inflammation and endothelial function, were also assessed. RESULTS. Retinal thickness, macular volume, and choroidal thickness were all reduced in CKD compared with hypertensive and healthy subjects (for retinal thickness and macular volume P < 0.0001 for CKD vs. healthy and for CKD vs. hypertensive subjects; for choroidal thickness P < 0.001 for CKD vs. healthy and for CKD vs. hypertensive subjects). RNFL thickness did not differ between groups. Interestingly, a thinner choroid was associated with a lower eGFR (r = 0.35, P <0.0001) and, in CKD, with proteinuria (r = -0.58, P < 0.001) as well as increased circulating C-reactive protein (r = -0.57, P = 0.0002), IL-6 (r = -0.40, P < 0.01), ADMA (r = -0.37, P = 0.02), and ET-1 (r = -0.44, P < 0.01). Finally, choroidal thinning was associated with renal histological inflammation and arterial stiffness. In a model of hypertension, choroidal thinning was seen only in the presence of renal injury. CONCLUSIONS. Chorioretinal thinning in CKD is associated with lower eGFR and greater proteinuria, but not BP. Larger studies, in more targeted groups of patients, are now needed to clarify whether these eye changes reflect the natural history of CKD. Similarly, the associations with arterial stiffness, inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction warrant further examination. TRIAL REGISTRATION. Registration number at www.clinicalTrials.gov: NCT02132741. SOURCE OF FUNDING. TR was supported by a bursary from the Erasmus Medical Centre, Rotterdam. JJMHvB was supported by a bursary from the Utrecht University. JRC is supported by a Rowling Scholarship. SB was supported by a Wellcome Trust funded clinical research fellowship from the Scottish Translational Medicine and Therapeutics Initiative, and by a Rowling Scholarship, at the time of this work. ND is supported by a British Heart Foundation Intermediate Clinical Research Fellowship (FS/13/30/29994).